Sindhi language explained

Sindhi
Pronunciation:pronounced as /sd/
Region:Sindh and near the border in neighbouring regions such as Kutch and Balochistan
Ethnicity:Sindhis
Date:2011–2017
Familycolor:Indo-European
Fam2:Indo-Iranian
Fam3:Indo-Aryan
Fam4:Northwestern
Fam5:Sindhic
Script:Naskh script, Devanagari and others[1]
Nation:
Agency:
Iso1:sd
Iso2:snd
Iso3:snd
Lingua:59-AAF-f
Notice:IPA
Glotto:sind1272
Glottoname:Sindhi
Map:Sindhi-speakers by Pakistani District - 2017 Census.svg
Map2:Lang Status 99-NE.svg

Sindhi (;[3] or Sindhi: सिन्धी, pronounced as /sd/) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 30 million people in the Pakistani province of Sindh, where it has official status. It is also spoken by a further 1.7 million people in India, where it is a scheduled language, without any state-level official status. The main writing system is the Perso-Arabic script, which accounts for the majority of the Sindhi literature and is the only one currently used in Pakistan. In India, both the Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari are used.

Sindhi is first attested in historical records within the Nātyaśāstra, a text thought to have been composed between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. The earliest written evidence of Sindhi as a language can be found in a translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883 A.D. Sindhi was one of the first Indo-Aryan languages to encounter influence from Persian and Arabic following the Umayyad conquest in 712 CE. A substantial body of Sindhi literature developed during the Medieval period, the most famous of which is the religious and mystic poetry of Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai from the 18th century. Modern Sindhi was promoted under British rule beginning in 1843, which led to the current status of the language in independent Pakistan after 1947.

History

Origins

The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskrit síndhu, the original name of the Indus River, along whose delta Sindhi is spoken.[4]

Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is descended from Old Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) via Middle Indo-Aryan (Pali, secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha). 20th century Western scholars such as George Abraham Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa, corresponding to modern Sindh) but later work has shown this to be unlikely.[5]

Early Sindhi (2nd–16th centuries)

Literary attestation of early Sindhi is sparse. Sindhi is first mentioned in historical records within the Nātyaśāstra, a text on dramaturgy thought to have been composed between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. The earliest written evidence of Sindhi as a language can be found in a translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883 A.D.[6] Historically, Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati. Much of this work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional hymn).[7]

Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to be in close contact with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 CE.

Medieval Sindhi (16th–19th centuries)

Medieval Sindhi literature is of a primarily religious genre, comprising a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The earliest known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi (1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period.

Another famous part of Medieval Sindhi literature is a wealth of folktales, adapted and readapted into verse by many bards at various times and possibly much older than their earliest literary attestations. These include romantic epics such as Sassui Punnhun, Sohni Mahiwal, Momal Rano, Noori Jam Tamachi, Lilan Chanesar, and others.[8]

The greatest poet of Sindhi was Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752), whose verses were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. While primarily Sufi, his verses also recount traditional Sindhi folktales and aspects of the cultural history of Sindh.

The first attested Sindhi translation of the Quran was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867.[9]

Modern Sindhi (1843–present)

In 1843, the British conquest of Sindh led the region to become part of the Bombay Presidency. Soon after, in 1848, Governor George Clerk established Sindhi as the official language in the province, removing the literary dominance of Persian. Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29, 1857, advising civil servants in Sindh to pass an examination in Sindhi. He also ordered the use of Sindhi in official documents.[10] In 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi with the Khudabadi script. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. The granting of official status of Sindhi along with script reforms ushered in the development of modern Sindhi literature.

The first printed works in Sindhi were produced at the Muhammadi Press in Bombay beginning in 1867. These included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim Thattvi, one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh.[8]

The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan, commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s.[11]

The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu, while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi.[12]

Geographic distribution

In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 30.26 million people, or % of the country's population as of the 2017 census. 29.5 million of these are found in Sindh, where they account for % of the total population of the province. There are 0.56 million speakers in the province of Balochistan,[13] especially in the Kacchi Plain that encompasses the districts of Lasbela, Hub, Kachhi, Sibi, Sohbatpur, Jafarabad, Jhal Magsi, Usta Muhammad and Nasirabad.

In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:

2011 Census Statistics(India Total: 2,772,264)[14] !State!Population
Gujarat1,184,024
Maharashtra723,748
Rajashtan386,569
Madhya Pradesh245,161
Chattisgarh93,424
Delhi (NCT)31,177
Uttar Pradesh28,952
Assam19,646
Karnataka16,954
Andhra Pradesh11,299
Tamil Nadu8,448
West Bengal7,828
Uttarakhand2,863
Odisha2,338
Bihar2,227
Jharkhand1,701
Haryana1,658
Kerala1,251
Punjab754
Goa656
Dadra and Nagar andDaman and Diu894
Meghalaya236
Chandigarh134
Puducherry94
Nagaland82
Himachal Pradesh62
Tripura30
Jammu and Kashmir19
Andaman and Nicobar Islands14
Arunachal Pradesh12
Lakshadweep7
Sikkim2

Official status

Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh[15] [2] and one of the scheduled languages of India, where it does not have any state-level status.[16]

Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh.[17] [18] [19] [20] The Pakistan Sindh Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh.[21] According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language.[22] Sindh Education and Literacy Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah, and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely taught.[23] Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that follow the Cambridge system.[24]

At the occasion of 'Mother Language Day' in 2023, the Sindh Assembly under Culture minister Sardar Ali Shah, passed a unanimous resolution to extend the use of language to primary level[25] and increase the status of Sindhi as a national language[26] [27] [28] of Pakistan.

The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India, making it an option for education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian state of Rajasthan.[29]

There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN, Sindh TV, Awaz Television Network, Mehran TV, and Dharti TV.

Dialects

Sindhi has many dialects, and forms a dialect continuum at some places with neighboring languages such as Saraiki and Gujarati. Some of the documented dialects of Sindhi are:[30] [31] [32]

The variety of Sindhi spoken by Sindhi Hindus who emigrated to India is known as Dukslinu Sindhi. Furthermore, Kutchi and Jadgali are sometimes classified as dialects of Sindhi rather than independent languages.

Sindhi dialects Comparison[43] !English!Vicholi !Lari !Uttaradi!Lasi !Kutchi[44] !Dhatki
IAao(n)Aao(n)Mā(n)ÃAau(n)Hu(n)
MyMuhnjoMujoMānjo/MāhjoMojo/MājoMujoMānjo/Māhyo
You "Sin, plu" (formal)Awha(n)/Awhee(n)Tawha(n)/Tawhee(n)Aa(n)/Aei(n)Taha(n)/Taa(n)/Tahee(n)/Taee(n)Awa(n)/Ai(n)Aa(n)/Ai(n)Awha/Ahee(n)/ Aween
To meMukheMukeMānkheMukhMukeMina
WeAsee(n)Asee(n), PānAsā(n)Asee(n)Asee(n), PānAsee(n), Asā(n)
WhatChha/KahirōKujjāro/KujjaChha/ShhaChhoKuroKee
WhyChhoKoChho/ShhoChhelaKolāi/KurelāeKayla
HowKiya(n)Kei(n)Kiya(n)Kee(n)Kiya(n)
NoNa, Kōna, KōnNā(n), KīnaNa, Kōna, Kāna, Kon, KānNā(n), MaNā, Ni, Ko, Kon, Ma
Legs (plural, fem)Tangu(n), Jjanghu(n)Tangu(n), Jjangu(n)Tangā(n), Jjanghā(n)
FootPairPair/Pagg/PaguloPairPairPagPagg, Pair
FarPareDdoorPare/ParteDdorChheteDdor
NearVejhōVejo/Ōdō/Ōdirō/OreVejhō/Vejhe/OrteŌddōWat, bājūmeNerro
Good/ExcellentSutho, ChaṅōKhāso/Sutho/ThhāukoSutho, Bhalo, ChangoKhāshoKhāso, LaatSutho, Phutro, Thhāuko
HighUtāhoUchoMatheUchoUchoUncho
SilverRupoChādi/RupoChāndiRupoRupo
FatherPiuPay/Abo/Aba/AdaPee/Babo/Pirhe(n)PePe, Bapa, Ada
WifeJoe/GharwāriJoe/Wani/KuwārZaal/GharwāriZaalVahu/VauDdosi, Luggai
ManMarduMāņu/Mārū/Mard/Murs/MusāluMānhu/Musālo/Bhāi/Kāko/HamraMānhuMāḍū/MārūMārū
WomanAuratZāla/ōrat/ōlathMāi/RanZālaBāeḍi/Bāyaḍī
Child/BabyBbār/Ningar/BbālakBbār/Ningar/Gabhur/Bacho/KakoBbār/Bacho/Adro/Phar (animal)GabharBār/Gabhar
DaughterDhiu/NiyāniDia/Niyāni/KañāDhee/AdriDhiaDhiDikri
SunSijuSij, SūrijSijhuSijuSūrajSūraj
SunlightKārroOosaTarko
CatBilliBili/PusaniBilliPhushiniMinni
RainBarsāt/Mee(n)h/Bārish Varsāt/Mee(n)/Mai(n)Barsāt/Mee(n)huVarsātMeh, Maiwla
AndAēi(n)Ãū(n)/Ãē(n)/NēAēi(n)/Aū(n)/AenÃē/OrNē/AnēA'e(n)/Ān
AlsoPin/BhiPin, BeeBu/PunPin/Pan
IsĀheĀyeAa/Āhe/HaiĀhe/ĀyeĀyeĀhe/Āh/Āye/Hai
FireBāheBāē/āgg/jjērōBāhe/BāhJjērōJirō/lagāņō/āg
WaterPāņīPāņī/JalPāņīPāņīPāņī/JalPāņī
WhereKithēKithēKithē, Kāthe, Kehda, Kāday, Kādah, Kidah, KithrēKithKithēKith
SleepNindr(a)Nind(a)Nindr(a)NindNinderOongh
SlapThaparr/ChammātTārrChamātu/Chapātu/Lapātu/Thapu
To WashDhoain(u)Dhun(u)Dhoain(u)/Dhuan(u)/Dhowan(u)Dhuwan(u)/Dhoon(u)
Will write (Masc)Likhandum, LikhandusLikhadosLikhdum, LikhdusLikhdosīLikhsā(n)
I WentAao(n) ViusAao(n) VēsMa(n) Vayus (m)/ Vayas (f)Ã viosīHu Gios

Phonology

Sindhi has a relatively large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other Indo-Aryan languages.[45] Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 10 vowels.[46] The consonant to vowel ratio is around average for the world's languages at 2.8.[47] All plosives, affricates, nasals, the retroflex flap, and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four implosives.

Consonants

The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue, so they could be transcribed pronounced as /[t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ n̠ n̠ʱ ɾ̠ ɾ̠ʱ]/ in phonetic transcription. The affricates pronounced as //tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, dʑʱ// are laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if pronounced as //ɲ// is similar, or truly palatal.[49] pronounced as //ʋ// is realized as labiovelar pronounced as /[w]/ or labiodental pronounced as /[ʋ]/ in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.

Vowels

FrontCentralBack
Closepronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Near-closepronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Close-midpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Midpronounced as /link/
Open-midpronounced as /link/pronounced as /link/
Openpronounced as /link/
The vowels are modal length pronounced as //i e æ ɑ ɔ o u// and short pronounced as //ɪ ʊ ə//. Consonants following short vowels are lengthened: pronounced as //pət̪o/ [pət̪ˑoː]/ 'leaf' vs. pronounced as //pɑt̪o/ [pɑːt̪oː]/ 'worn'.

Grammar

Nouns

Sindhi nouns distinguish two genders (masculine and feminine), two numbers (singular and plural), and five cases (nominative, vocative, oblique, ablative, and locative). This is a similar paradigm to Punjabi. Almost all Sindhi noun stems end in a vowel, except for some recent loanwords. The declension of a noun in Sindhi is largely determined from its grammatical gender and the final vowel (or if there is no final vowel). Generally, -o stems are masculine and -a stems are feminine, but the other final vowels can belong to either gender.

The different paradigms are listed below with examples.[50] The ablative and locative cases are used with only some lexemes in the singular number and hence not listed, but predictably take the suffixes -ā̃ / -aū̃ / -ū̃ and -i .

Gloss
I
chokiro

chokirā

chokire

chokirā

chokirā / chokira

chokirani
boy
II
ɓāru

ɓāra

ɓāra / ɓāro

ɓārani
child
III
sāthī

sāthīa

sāthī

sāthīaro

sāthyani
companion

rahākū

rahākūa

rahākū

rahākuo

rahākuni
inhabitant
IV
rājā

rājā / rājāito

rājāuni
king

seṭhu

seṭha

seṭhani
merchant
I
zāla

zālū̃

zāluni
woman, wife

sasu

sasū̃

sasuni
mother-in-law
II
davā

davāū̃

davāuni
medicine

rāti

rātyū̃

rātyuni
night

hoṭal

hoṭalū̃

hoṭaluni
hotel
III
ɠaū̃

ɠaū̃a

ɠaū̃

ɠaūni
cow
IV
nadī

nadīa

nadyū̃

nadyuni
river

A few nouns representing familial relations take irregular declensions with an extension in -r- in the plural. These are the masculine nouns bhāu "brother", pīu "father", and the feminine nouns dhīa "daughter", nū̃hã "daughter-in-law", bheṇa "sister", māu "mother", and joi "wife".[50]

Gloss

bhāu

bhāuru / bhāura

bhāura / bhāuro

bhāurani / bhāuni
brother

dhīa / dhīu

dhīaru / dhīarū̃ / dhīū̃

dhīaruni / dhīuni
daughter

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Sindhi has first and second-person personal pronouns as well as several types of third-person proximal and distal demonstratives. These decline in the nominative and oblique cases. The genitive is a special form for the first and second-person singular, but formed as usual with the oblique and case marker جو jo for the rest. The personal pronouns are listed below.

! colspan=2
مَان / آئُون
mā̃ / āū̃
تُون
tū̃
اَسِين
asī̃
تَوِهِين
tavhī̃
مُون
mū̃
تو
to
اَسَان
asā̃
تَوِهَان
tavhā̃
مُنهِنجو
mũhinjo
تُنهِنجو
tũhinjo

The third-person pronouns are listed below. Besides the unmarked demonstratives, there are also "specific" and "present" demonstratives. In the nominative singular, the demonstratives are marked for gender. Some other pronouns which decline identically to ڪو ko "someone" are هَرڪو har-ko "everyone", سَڀڪو sabh-ko "all of them", جيڪو je-ko "whoever" (relative), and تيڪو te-ko "that one" (correlative).

! colspan=7
DemonstrativeInterrogativeRelativeCorrelative
UnmarkedSpecificPresentIndefinite
هِي
هُو
اِهو
iho
اُهو
uho
اِجهو
ijho
اوجهو
ojho
ڪو
ko
ڪيرُ
keru
جو
jo
سو
so
هِيءَ
hīa
هُوءَ
hūa
اِهَا
ihā
اُهَا
uhā
اِجهَا
ijhā
اوجهَا
ojhā
ڪَا
ڪيرَ
kera
جَا
سَا
هِنَ
hina
هُنَ
huna
اِنهين
inhẽ
اُنهين
unhẽ
ڪَنهِن
kãhĩ
جَنهِن
jãhĩ
تَنهِن
tãhĩ
هِي
هُو
اِهي
ihe
اُهي
uhe
اِجهي
ijhe
اوجهي
ojhe
ڪي
ke
ڪيرَ
kera
جي
je
سي
se
هِنَنِ
hinani
هُنَنِ
hunani
اِنهَنِ
inhani
اُنهَنِ
unhani
ڪِنِ
kini
جِنِ
jini
تنِ
tini

Numerals

Num.Cardinal
0Sindhi: ٻُڙِي
1Sindhi: هِڪُ
2 Sindhi: ٻَه
3 Sindhi: ٽِي
4 Sindhi: چَارِ
5 Sindhi: پَنج
6 Sindhi: ڇَهَه
7 Sindhi: سَتَ
8 Sindhi: اَٺَ
9 Sindhi: نَوَ
Num.Cardinal
10 Sindhi: ڏَهَه
11Sindhi: يَارَنهَن
12 Sindhi: ٻَارَهَن
13 Sindhi: تيرَهَن
14 Sindhi: چوڏَهَن
15 Sindhi: پَندرَهَن
16 Sindhi: سورَهَن
17 Sindhi: سَترَهَن
18 Sindhi: اَرِڙَهَن / اَٺَارَهَن
19 Sindhi: اُڻوِيهَه

Postpositions

Most nominal relations (e.g. the semantic role of a nominal as an argument to a verb) are indicated using postpositions, which follow a noun in the oblique case. The subject of the verb takes the bare oblique case, while the object may be in nominative case or in oblique case and followed by the accusative case marker کي khe.[51]

The postpositions are divided into case markers, which directly follow the noun, and complex postpositions, which combine with a case marker (usually the genitive جو jo).

Case markers

The case markers are listed below.

The postpositions with the suffix -o decline in gender and number to agree with their governor, e.g. ڇوڪِرو جو پِيءُ chokiro j-o pīu "the boy's father" but ڇوڪِر جِي مَاءُ chokiro j-ī māu "the boy's mother".

Case markers! Case !! Marker !! Example !! English
ڇوڪِرو
chokiro
the boy
Accusative
Dative
کي
khe
ڇوڪِري کي
chokire khe
the boy
to the boy
Genitiveجو
j-o
ڇوڪِري جو
chokire jo
of the boy
سَندو
sand-o
ڇوڪِري سَندو
chokire sando
سُڌو
sudh-o
ڇوڪِري سُڌو
chokire sudho
along with the boy
Comitative
Instrumental
سَان
sā̃
ڇوڪِري سَان
chokire sā̃
with the boy
سَاڻُ
sāṇu
ڇوڪِري سَاڻُ
chokire sāṇu
Locative۾
mẽ
ڇوڪِري ۾
chokire mẽ
in the boy
مَنجهِ
manjhi
ڇوڪِري مَنجهِ
chokire manjhi
Adessiveتي
te
ڇوڪِري تي
chokire te
on the boy
وَٽِ
vaṭi
ڇوڪِري وَٽِ
chokire vaṭi
near the boy
the boy has...
ڏَانهَن
ḍā̃hã
ڇوڪِري ڏَانهَن
chokire ḍā̃hã
towards the boy
تَائيِن
tāī̃
ڇوڪِري تَائيِن
chokire tāī̃
up to the boy
لاءِ
lāi
ڇوڪِري لاءِ
chokire lāi
for the boy
Semblativeوَانگُرُ
vānguru
ڇوڪِري وَانگُرُ
chokire vānguru
like the boy
جَهڙو
jahṛ-o
ڇوڪِري جَهڙو
chokire jahṛo

There are several ablative case markers formed from the spatial postpositions and the ablative ending -ā̃. These indicate complex motion such as "from inside of".

Ablative case markers! Marker !! Example !! English
کَان
khā̃
ڇوڪِري کَان
chokire khā̃
from the boy
مَان
mā̃
ڇوڪِري مَان
chokire mā̃
from inside the boy
تَان
tā̃
ڇوڪِري تَان
chokire tā̃
from upon the boy
ڏَانهَان
ḍā̃hā̃
ڇوڪِري ڏَانهَان
chokire ḍā̃hā̃
from the direction of the boy

Finally, some case markers are found in medieval Sindhi literature and/or modern poetic Sindhi, and otherwise not used in standard speech.

Obsolete/rare case markers! Case !! Marker !! Example !! English
ڪَني
kane
ڇوڪِري ڪَني
chokire kane
to/near the boy

Complex postpositions

The complex postpositions are formed with a case marker, usually the genitive but sometimes the ablative. Many are listed below.

Sindhi Transliteration Explanation
جي اَڳيَان je aɠyā̃ "ahead of, before"; apudessive
جي اَندَرِ je andari "inside of"; inessive
جي بَدِرَان je badirā̃ "instead of, in place of"
جي بَرَابَر je barābar "equal to"
جي ٻَاهَرَان je ɓāharā̃"outside of"
کَان ٻَاهَرِ khā̃ ɓāhari
جي باري ۾ je bāre mẽ "about, concerning"
جي چَوڌَارِي je caudhārī "around"
جي هيٺَان je heṭhā̃ "below, under"
جي ڪَري je kare "for, on account of"
جي لَاءِ je lāi "for"
جي مَٿَان je mathā̃ "above, on top of, upon"
کَان پَري khā̃ pare "far from"
جي پَارِ je pāri "across, on the other side of"
جي پَاسي je pāse "on the side of, near"
کَان پوءِ khā̃ poi "after"
جي پُٺيَان je puṭhyā̃ "behind"
جي سَامهون je sāmhõ "in front of, facing"
کَان سِوَاءِ khā̃ sivāi "besides, apart from"
جي وَاسطي je vāste "for the sake of, on account of"
جي ويجهو je vejho "near"; adessive
جي وِچِ ۾ je vici mẽ "between, among"
جي خَاطِرِ je xātiri "for the sake of"
جي خِلَافِ je xilāfi "against"
جي ذَرِيعي je zarī'e "via, through"; perlative

Vocabulary

According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch, most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit. However, owing to the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani. Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced by Urdu, with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi, with more borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements.

Writing systems

Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology, while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari, Khudabadi, Khojki, and Gurmukhi.[52] Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier.[53]

The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century.[12] Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script.[54] During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari.

Laṇḍā scripts

Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi, Khojki, and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write Sindhi.

Khudabadi

Khudabadi
or Sindhi
Unicode:U+112B0–U+112FF
Iso15924:Sind
Note:none

The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script for official purposes was legislated.

The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the trader community until the Partition of India in 1947.[55]

Khojki

Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few secret Shia Muslim sects.[56] [57]

Gurmukhi

The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus.[55] [56]

Perso-Arabic script

During the British raj, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and eighteen new letters (Sindhi: {{Naskh|ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ ڪ) for sounds particular to Sindhi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in Sindhi.

Sindhi: {{Naskh|جهہSindhi: {{Naskh|ڄSindhi: {{Naskh|جSindhi: {{Naskh|پSindhi: {{Naskh|ثSindhi: {{Naskh|ٺSindhi: {{Naskh|ٽSindhi: {{Naskh|ٿSindhi: {{Naskh|تSindhi: {{Naskh|ڀSindhi: {{Naskh|ٻSindhi: {{Naskh|بSindhi: {{Naskh|ا
pronounced as /ɟʱ/pronounced as /ʄ/pronounced as /ɟ/pronounced as /p/pronounced as /s/pronounced as /ʈʰ/pronounced as /ʈ/pronounced as /tʰ/pronounced as /t/pronounced as /bʱ/pronounced as /ɓ/pronounced as /b/pronounced as /ɑː/ pronounced as /ʔ/ pronounced as /∅/
Sindhi: {{Naskh|ڙSindhi: {{Naskh|رSindhi: {{Naskh|ذSindhi: {{Naskh|ڍSindhi: {{Naskh|ڊSindhi: {{Naskh|ڏSindhi: {{Naskh|ڌSindhi: {{Naskh|دSindhi: {{Naskh|خSindhi: {{Naskh|حSindhi: {{Naskh|ڇSindhi: {{Naskh|چSindhi: {{Naskh|ڃ
pronounced as /ɽ/pronounced as /r/pronounced as /z/pronounced as /ɖʱ/pronounced as /ɖ/pronounced as /ɗ/pronounced as /dʱ/pronounced as /d/pronounced as /x/pronounced as /h/pronounced as /cʰ/pronounced as /c/pronounced as /ɲ/
Sindhi: {{Naskh|ڪSindhi: {{Naskh|قSindhi: {{Naskh|ڦSindhi: {{Naskh|فSindhi: {{Naskh|غSindhi: {{Naskh|عSindhi: {{Naskh|ظSindhi: {{Naskh|طSindhi: {{Naskh|ضSindhi: {{Naskh|صSindhi: {{Naskh|شSindhi: {{Naskh|سSindhi: {{Naskh|ز
pronounced as /k/qpronounced as /pʰ/pronounced as /f/pronounced as /ɣ/pronounced as /ɑː/ pronounced as /oː/ pronounced as /eː/ pronounced as /ʔ/ pronounced as /∅/pronounced as /z/pronounced as /t/pronounced as /z/pronounced as /s/pronounced as /ʂ/pronounced as /s/pronounced as /z/
Sindhi: {{Naskh|يSindhi: {{Naskh|ءSindhi: {{Naskh|هSindhi: {{Naskh|وSindhi: {{Naskh|ڻSindhi: {{Naskh|نSindhi: {{Naskh|مSindhi: {{Naskh|لSindhi: {{Naskh|ڱSindhi: {{Naskh|گهہSindhi: {{Naskh|ڳSindhi: {{Naskh|گSindhi: {{Naskh|ک
pronounced as /j/ pronounced as /iː/pronounced as /ʔ/ pronounced as /∅/pronounced as /h/pronounced as /ʋ/ pronounced as /ʊ/ pronounced as /oː/ pronounced as /ɔː/ pronounced as /uː/pronounced as /ɳ/pronounced as /n/pronounced as /m/pronounced as /l/pronounced as /ŋ/pronounced as /ɡʱ/pronounced as /ɠ/pronounced as /ɡ/pronounced as /kʰ/

Devanagari script

In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi.[56] A modern version was introduced by the government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services Examination in either script.[58] Devanagari was seen as the most practical option for Sindhi language in India.[1] Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are used to form other additional consonants.

Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi:
pronounced as /ə/pronounced as /a/pronounced as /ɪ/pronounced as /i/pronounced as /ʊ/pronounced as /uː/pronounced as /e/pronounced as /ɛ/pronounced as /o/pronounced as /ɔ/
Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: ख़Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: ग़Hindi: Hindi:
pronounced as /k/pronounced as /kʰ/pronounced as /x/pronounced as /ɡ/pronounced as /ɠ/pronounced as /ɣ/pronounced as /ɡʱ/pronounced as /ŋ/
Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: ज़Hindi: Hindi:
pronounced as /c/pronounced as /cʰ/pronounced as /ɟ/pronounced as /ʄ/pronounced as /z/pronounced as /ɟʱ/pronounced as /ɲ/
Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: ड़Hindi: Hindi: ढ़Hindi:
pronounced as /ʈ/pronounced as /ʈʰ/pronounced as /ɖ/pronounced as /ɗ/pronounced as /ɽ/pronounced as /ɖʱ/pronounced as /ɽʱ/pronounced as /ɳ/
Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi:
pronounced as /t/pronounced as /tʰ/pronounced as /d/pronounced as /dʱ/pronounced as /n/
Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: फ़Hindi: Hindi: ॿHindi: Hindi:
pronounced as /p/pronounced as /pʰ/pronounced as /f/pronounced as /b/pronounced as /ɓ/pronounced as /bʱ/pronounced as /m/
Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi:
pronounced as /j/pronounced as /r/pronounced as /l/pronounced as /ʋ/
Hindi: Hindi: Hindi: Hindi:
pronounced as /ʂ/pronounced as /ʂ/pronounced as /s/pronounced as /h/

Roman Sindhi

See also: Romanisation of Sindhi. The Sindhi-Roman script or Roman-Sindhi script is the contemporary Sindhi script usually used by the Sindhis when texting messages on their mobile phones.[59] [60]

Advocacy

See also: 1972 Sindhi Language Bill. In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.

Software

By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi speakers around the world.[61] In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi language.[62] [63] Later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google Translate.[64] [65] Which was followed by Microsoft Translator strengthening support in May of same year.[66] [67]

In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode, However as of now the script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.

See also

Sources

External links

Notes and References

  1. Like Community, Like Language: Seventy-Five Years of Sindhi in Post-Partition India . 2021. Journal of Sindhi Studies . 10.1163/26670925-bja10002 . 12 November 2021 . Iyengar . Arvind . Parchani . Sundri . 1 . 1–32 . 246551773 . free . 2667-0925 .
  2. Encyclopedia: Encyclopædia Britannica . Sindhi Language . December 29, 2013.
  3. Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student’s Handbook, Edinburgh
  4. Web site: Sindhi . The Languages Gulper. January 29, 2013.
  5. Wadhwani . Y. K. . The Origin of the Sindhi Language . Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute . 1981 . 40 . 192–201 . 42931119 . 9 April 2021.
  6. Cole . J. . Brown . Keith . Sindhi . Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second Edition) . 2006 . 384–387 . 10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/02241-0 . Elsevier.
  7. Web site: Sacred Literature-Ginans . Ismaili.NET . Heritage Society . 2 August 2022.
  8. Schimmel . Annemarie . Sindhi Literature . Mahfil . 1971 . 7 . 1/2 . 71–80 . 40874414 .
  9. Web site: The Holy Qur'an and its Translators – Imam Reza (A.S.) Network. Imamreza.net. 29 March 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20160115045637/http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=1391. 15 January 2016. dead. dmy-all.
  10. Web site: The language link . Naseer . Memon . April 13, 2014 . The News on Sunday . April 13, 2014 . April 13, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140413143150/http://tns.thenews.com.pk/declaring-major-languages-as-national-languages/#.U0oQ-VWSygQ . dead .
  11. Levesque . Julien . Beyond Success or Failure: Sindhi Nationalism and the Social Construction of the "Idea of Sindh" . Journal of Sindhi Studies . 2021 . 1 . 1 . 1–33 . 10.1163/26670925-bja10001 . 246560343 . 2 August 2022. free .
  12. Web site: Sindhi language Britannica . 6 October 2022 . Encyclopedia Britannica.
  13. News: CCI defers approval of census results until elections . 28 May 2018. Dawn. 29 October 2022. The numbers have been calculate based on the percentages and the population totals. For example, the figure of 30.26 million is calculated from the reported 14.57% for the speakers of Sindhi and the 207.685 million total population of Pakistan.
  14. Web site: C-16: Population by mother tongue, India - 2011. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. 29 October 2022.
  15. Web site: Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflict in Pakistan. Gulshan . Majeed . Journal of Political Studies. December 27, 2013.
  16. Web site: Languages Included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constution . . 2018-04-09.
  17. Language and Politics in Pakistan. The Sindhi Language Movement . academia.edu. 12 September 2015.
  18. News: The Imposition Of Urdu. 12 September 2015. NAWAIWAQT GROUP OF NEWSPAPERS. September 10, 2015. 11 September 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150911082914/http://nation.com.pk/editorials/10-Sep-2015/the-imposition-of-urdu. dead.
  19. Web site: Microsoft Word - Teaching of Sindhi & Sindhi ethnicity.doc. Apnaorg.com . 2018-08-13.
  20. Web site: The Sindhi Language Movement . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140905005418/http://www.tariqrahman.net/content/scholorly_articles/sindhi_lang_mov.pdf . 2014-09-05 . 2015-09-12.
  21. Web site: Samar . Azeem . 13 March 2019 . PA resolution calls for teaching Sindhi as compulsory subject in private schools . 2022-10-06 . . en.
  22. Web site: PakistanToday . 25 September 2018 . Sindhi to be made compulsory in all private schools across province Pakistan Today . 2022-10-06 . . en-GB.
  23. Web site: 2018-09-25 . Private schools directed to make Sindhi compulsory subject . 2022-10-06 . . en.
  24. Web site: 2018-09-24 . Sindh private schools told to teach Sindhi as compulsory subject . 2022-10-06 . . en.
  25. Web site: 2023-02-20 . Call for using local languages at primary level . 2023-02-28 . The Express Tribune . en.
  26. Web site: 2023-02-21 . Members decry delay in declaring Sindhi a national language . 2023-02-23 . The Express Tribune . en.
  27. Web site: Siddiqui . Tahir . 2023-02-22 . Govt, opposition demand national language status for Sindhi . 2023-02-23 . DAWN.COM . en.
  28. Web site: Pakistan: Members of Sindh Assembly demand national language status for Sindhi . 2023-02-23 . ANI News . en.
  29. Web site: National Committee for Linguistic Minorities . 2018-08-13 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120513161847/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM47thReport.pdf . 2012-05-13 . dead .
  30. Book: One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost. Austin. Peter. Austin. Marit Rausing Chair in Field Linguistics Peter K.. 2008. University of California Press. 9780520255609. en.
  31. Book: Paniker, K. Ayyappa. Medieval Indian Literature: Surveys and selections. 1997. Sahitya Akademi. 9788126003655. en.
  32. Book: Gazetteer of the Province of Sind . 1907 . Government at the "Mercantile" Steam Press . 188–519 . en.
  33. Web site: 1919 . Uttaradi .
  34. Book: Masica, Colin P. . The Indo-Aryan languages . 1991 . Cambridge University Press . 978-0-521-23420-7 . Cambridge language surveys . 443.
  35. Rahman . Tariq . 1995 . The Siraiki Movement in Pakistan . Language Problems & Language Planning . 19 . 1 . 3 . 10.1075/lplp.19.1.01rah.
  36. Web site: Fraki Sindhi . Sindhi spoken at Sibi is known as Fraki..
  37. Web site: 2016-11-30 . Firaqi Sindhi . Indus Asia Online Journal.
  38. Web site: Linguistic Survey of India . 2024-01-24 . dsal.uchicago.edu.
  39. Book: One thousand languages : living, endangered, and lost . 2008 . Berkeley . University of California Press . 978-0-520-25560-9.
  40. Web site: Sindhi bhil language . LotsOfEssays.com.
  41. Web site: Sindhi Bhil . Global Recordings Network.
  42. Web site: Sindhi bhil . Ethnologue.
  43. Web site: Linguistic Survey of India . 2024-02-11 . dsal.uchicago.edu . 214.
  44. Web site: 2022-11-13 . The Sweet Language of Kutch . 2024-02-11 . Memeraki Retail and Tech Pvt Ltd. . en.
  45. Web site: Sindhi Language - Structure, Writing & Alphabet - MustGo .
  46. Web site: Raza . Sarfraz . Zahid . Agha Furrukh . Raza . Usman . Phonemic Inventory of Sindhi and Acoustic Analysis of Voiced Implosives . 29 October 2023 . uogenglish.files.wordpress.com.
  47. Nihalani, Paroo. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association (Sindhi). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  48. Illustration of the IPA – Sindhi . 2 . 95–98 . Paroo . Nihalani . December 1, 1995 . Journal of the International Phonetic Association . 25 . 10.1017/S0025100300005235 . 249410954 .
  49. The IPA Handbook uses the symbols pronounced as /c, cʰ, ɟ, ɟʱ/, but makes it clear this is simply tradition and that these are neither palatal nor stops, but "laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release". Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996:83) confirm a transcription of pronounced as /[t̠ɕ, t̠ɕʰ, d̠ʑ, d̠ʑʱ]/ and further remarks that "pronounced as //ʄ// is often a slightly creaky voiced palatal approximant" (caption of table 3.19).
  50. Jetley . Murlidhar Kishinchand . Morphology of Sindhi: A descriptive analysis of Vicholi, the standard Sindhi dialect . 1964 . Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute Pune . 10603/145755 .
  51. Book: Trumpp . Ernest . Grammar of the Sindhi language . 1872 . Trübner and Co. . London .
  52. Web site: Nair . Manoj R. . 2018-07-30 . The dispute over script still endures among Sindhis . 2022-10-06 . . en.
  53. Web site: Dec 7, 2020 . Sindhi becomes the first language from Pakistan to be selected for digitization. . Geo News.
  54. Web site: Archived copy . 2016-05-07 . 2016-03-07 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160307104920/http://www.ancientscripts.com/landa.html . dead .
  55. Web site: Sindhi Language: Script . Sindhilanguage.com . 15 May 2012 . 19 April 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120419105333/http://www.sindhilanguage.com/script.html . dead .
  56. Web site: Proposal to Encode the Sindhi Script in ISO/IEC 10646 . ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 . 2010-09-10 . 2024-06-25.
  57. Web site: Final Proposal to Encode the Khojki Script in ISO/IEC 10646 . ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 . 2011-01-28 . 2024-06-25.
  58. Web site: UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile . 2007-10-06 . 2014-10-22 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141022024834/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?menu=004&LangID=201 . dead .
  59. Web site: Romanized Sindhi is teaching reading speaking writing sindhi language globally under alliance of sindhi association of Americas Inc. Romanizedsindhi.org. 1 March 2022.
  60. Web site: CHOICE OF SCRIPT FOR OUR SINDHI LANGUAGE. Chandiramani.com. 7 May 2016.
  61. Ismaili . Imdad Ali . Design & Development of the Graphical User Interface for Sindhi Language . The idea is to provide a software platform to the people of Sindh as well as Sindhi diasporas living across the globe to make use of computing for basic tasks such as editing, composition, formatting, and printing of documents in Sindhi by using GUISL. The implementation of the GUISL has been done in the Java technology to make the system platform independent. . Mehran University Research Journal of Engineering and Technology . 2011 . en.
  62. Web site: Google Translate now speaks Sindhi, Pashto . 2023-03-19 . Official Google India Blog . en.
  63. News: ANI . 2016-02-18 . Google adds Sindhi to its translate language options . Business Standard India . 2023-03-19.
  64. News: 2023-01-16 . Google Translate brings offline support for Oriya, Sindhi and 31 other languages . The Times of India . 2023-03-23 . 0971-8257.
  65. Web site: Ghazi . Zain . 2023-01-18 . Google Translate Sindhi Offline . 2023-03-23 . Pakistani Journal . en-US.
  66. Web site: Stories . Microsoft . 2023-05-19 . Microsoft Translator adds four new languages – Konkani, Maithili, Sindhi, and Sinhala . 2023-05-19 . Microsoft Stories India . en-IN.
  67. Web site: Team . C. R. N. . 2023-05-18 . Microsoft Translator adds 4 new languages – Konkani, Maithili, Sindhi, and Sinhala . 2023-05-19 . CRN - India . en-US.